diff --git a/internal/assets/checkmdl.go b/internal/assets/checkmdl.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f8f4c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/checkmdl.go
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"flag"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+
+	"git.westgate.pw/ShadowsOverWestgate/sow-tools/internal/assets/mdl"
+)
+
+// mdlExt is the file set shared by the mdl commands.
+var mdlExt = map[string]bool{".mdl": true}
+
+// runCheckMDL reports uncompiled ASCII .mdl files and model-name mismatches.
+// Read-only. Exit exitFail if any problem is found.
+func runCheckMDL(args []string, stdout, stderr io.Writer) int {
+	fs := flag.NewFlagSet("check-mdl", flag.ContinueOnError)
+	fs.SetOutput(stderr)
+	nonRecursive := fs.Bool("non-recursive", false, "do not descend into subdirectories")
+	if err := fs.Parse(args); err != nil {
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+	paths := fs.Args()
+	if len(paths) == 0 {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets check-mdl: usage: check-mdl <path>...")
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	files, err := walk(paths, mdlExt, !*nonRecursive)
+	if err != nil {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets check-mdl:", err)
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	fail := false
+	for _, f := range files {
+		ascii, err := mdl.IsASCII(f)
+		if err != nil {
+			fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets check-mdl:", err)
+			return exitTool
+		}
+		if ascii {
+			fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "uncompiled ascii mdl: %s\n", f)
+			fail = true
+		}
+		mismatches, err := mdl.CheckNames(f)
+		if err != nil {
+			fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets check-mdl:", err)
+			return exitTool
+		}
+		expected := mdl.ExpectedName(f)
+		for _, m := range mismatches {
+			if m.Line == 0 {
+				fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "%s: mdl model-name mismatch: root node is %s, expected %s\n", f, m.Got, expected)
+			} else {
+				fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "%s: mdl model-name mismatch: line %d: %s is %s, expected %s\n", f, m.Line, m.What, m.Got, expected)
+			}
+			fail = true
+		}
+	}
+	if fail {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "check-mdl: found broken or uncompiled .mdl file(s)")
+		return exitFail
+	}
+	fmt.Fprintln(stdout, "check-mdl: OK")
+	return exitOK
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/checkmdl_test.go b/internal/assets/checkmdl_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c09684
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/checkmdl_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+func TestCheckMDL(t *testing.T) {
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	// Uncompiled ASCII model with a name mismatch.
+	bad := filepath.Join(dir, "foo.mdl")
+	if err := os.WriteFile(bad, []byte("newmodel wrong\nbeginmodelgeom wrong\nendmodelgeom wrong\ndonemodel wrong\n"), 0o644); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	var out, errw bytes.Buffer
+	if code := runCheckMDL([]string{dir}, &out, &errw); code != exitFail {
+		t.Fatalf("bad mdl exit = %d, want %d\n%s", code, exitFail, errw.String())
+	}
+
+	// A binary (compiled) model is fine.
+	good := t.TempDir()
+	if err := os.WriteFile(filepath.Join(good, "bar.mdl"), []byte("\x00\x00compiled binary blob"), 0o644); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	out.Reset()
+	errw.Reset()
+	if code := runCheckMDL([]string{good}, &out, &errw); code != exitOK {
+		t.Fatalf("binary mdl exit = %d, want %d\n%s", code, exitOK, errw.String())
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/compile.go b/internal/assets/compile.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dca73a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/compile.go
@@ -0,0 +1,190 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"flag"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+
+	"git.westgate.pw/ShadowsOverWestgate/sow-tools/internal/assets/mdl"
+)
+
+// runCompile compiles ASCII .mdl models to binary in place, one at a time (the
+// engine's development/ and modelcompiler/ folders are flat, single-slot).
+func runCompile(args []string, stdout, stderr io.Writer, getenv func(string) string) int {
+	fs := flag.NewFlagSet("compile", flag.ContinueOnError)
+	fs.SetOutput(stderr)
+	nwn := fs.String("nwn", "", "path to the NWN install root or nwmain-linux binary")
+	nonRecursive := fs.Bool("non-recursive", false, "do not descend into subdirectories")
+	if err := fs.Parse(args); err != nil {
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+	dirs := fs.Args()
+	if len(dirs) == 0 {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets compile: usage: compile [--nwn INSTALL] <dir>...")
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	home := getenv("HOME")
+	userData := filepath.Join(home, ".local", "share", "Neverwinter Nights")
+	dev := filepath.Join(userData, "development")
+	mc := filepath.Join(userData, "modelcompiler")
+
+	nwmain := findNWMain(*nwn, home)
+	if nwmain == "" {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets compile: nwmain-linux not found — pass --nwn <install> "+
+			"(Steam/GOG/Beamdog install root or the nwmain-linux binary)")
+		return exitTool
+	}
+	binDir := filepath.Dir(nwmain)
+
+	// Headless wrap: no DISPLAY + xvfb-run present -> run under a virtual X.
+	var wrap []string
+	if getenv("DISPLAY") == "" {
+		if xvfb := look("xvfb-run"); xvfb != "" {
+			wrap = []string{xvfb, "-a", "--server-args=-screen 0 1024x768x24"}
+		}
+	}
+
+	files, err := walk(dirs, mdlExt, !*nonRecursive)
+	if err != nil {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets compile:", err)
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	failed := false
+	for _, src := range files {
+		if err := compileOne(src, binDir, nwmain, dev, mc, wrap, userData, stdout, stderr); err != nil {
+			fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets compile: %s: %v\n", src, err)
+			failed = true
+		}
+	}
+	if failed {
+		return exitFail
+	}
+	return exitOK
+}
+
+// findNWMain resolves the nwmain-linux binary from --nwn or standard roots.
+func findNWMain(override, home string) string {
+	if override != "" {
+		if fi, err := os.Stat(override); err == nil && !fi.IsDir() {
+			return override
+		}
+		cand := filepath.Join(override, "bin", "linux-x86", "nwmain-linux")
+		if fi, err := os.Stat(cand); err == nil && !fi.IsDir() {
+			return cand
+		}
+		return ""
+	}
+	return look(
+		filepath.Join(home, ".local/share/Steam/steamapps/common/Neverwinter Nights/bin/linux-x86/nwmain-linux"),
+		filepath.Join(home, "GOG Games/Neverwinter Nights Enhanced Edition/game/bin/linux-x86/nwmain-linux"),
+		filepath.Join(home, ".steam/steam/steamapps/common/Neverwinter Nights/bin/linux-x86/nwmain-linux"),
+	)
+}
+
+// compileOne compiles a single model. Binary models are reported and skipped
+// (not an error). A name-mismatched model is aborted with guidance.
+func compileOne(src, binDir, nwmain, dev, mc string, wrap []string, userData string, stdout, stderr io.Writer) error {
+	ascii, err := mdl.IsASCII(src)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if !ascii {
+		fmt.Fprintf(stdout, "skip (already compiled): %s\n", src)
+		return nil
+	}
+	mismatches, err := mdl.CheckNames(src)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if len(mismatches) > 0 {
+		return fmt.Errorf("model names differ from the file stem; run `crucible assets fix-mdl` first")
+	}
+
+	stem := mdl.ExpectedNameStem(src)
+	name := strings.ToLower(filepath.Base(src))
+	devFile := filepath.Join(dev, name)
+	// Collision guard: a pre-existing slot aborts before any mutation.
+	if _, err := os.Stat(devFile); err == nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("development slot already occupied: %s", devFile)
+	}
+
+	data, err := os.ReadFile(src)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if err := os.WriteFile(devFile, data, 0o644); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	defer os.Remove(devFile)
+
+	// Run the engine with cwd = the binary dir.
+	cmd := append(append([]string{}, wrap...), nwmain, "compilemodel", stem)
+	if out, err := runner(binDir, nil, cmd[0], cmd[1:]...); err != nil {
+		printEngineLog(userData, stderr)
+		return fmt.Errorf("engine: %v: %s", err, strings.TrimSpace(string(out)))
+	}
+
+	// Collect the compiled artifact from modelcompiler/ (match by stem, any case).
+	compiled, err := findCompiled(mc, stem)
+	if err != nil {
+		printEngineLog(userData, stderr)
+		return err
+	}
+	defer os.Remove(compiled)
+
+	out, err := os.ReadFile(compiled)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	// Move it back over the source path, lowercased.
+	dst := filepath.Join(filepath.Dir(src), name)
+	if err := os.WriteFile(dst, out, 0o644); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if dst != src {
+		_ = os.Remove(src)
+	}
+	fmt.Fprintf(stdout, "compiled: %s\n", dst)
+	return nil
+}
+
+// findCompiled returns the modelcompiler/ artifact whose stem matches (case-
+// insensitively).
+func findCompiled(mc, stem string) (string, error) {
+	entries, err := os.ReadDir(mc)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", err
+	}
+	want := strings.ToLower(stem) + ".mdl"
+	for _, e := range entries {
+		if e.IsDir() {
+			continue
+		}
+		if strings.ToLower(e.Name()) == want {
+			return filepath.Join(mc, e.Name()), nil
+		}
+	}
+	return "", fmt.Errorf("engine produced no compiled model for %q", stem)
+}
+
+// printEngineLog appends a short tail of the engine log as advisory diagnostics.
+func printEngineLog(userData string, stderr io.Writer) {
+	log := filepath.Join(userData, "logs", "nwengineLog.txt")
+	data, err := os.ReadFile(log)
+	if err != nil {
+		return
+	}
+	lines := strings.Split(strings.TrimRight(string(data), "\n"), "\n")
+	if len(lines) > 8 {
+		lines = lines[len(lines)-8:]
+	}
+	fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "  engine log tail (%s):\n", log)
+	for _, l := range lines {
+		fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "    %s\n", l)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/compile_test.go b/internal/assets/compile_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5af0ce6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/compile_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,110 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+func TestCompileDrivesEngineAndReplacesInPlace(t *testing.T) {
+	home := t.TempDir()
+	userData := filepath.Join(home, ".local", "share", "Neverwinter Nights")
+	dev := filepath.Join(userData, "development")
+	mc := filepath.Join(userData, "modelcompiler")
+	for _, d := range []string{dev, mc} {
+		if err := os.MkdirAll(d, 0o755); err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+	}
+	// Fake nwmain binary for discovery via --nwn.
+	binDir := t.TempDir()
+	nwmain := filepath.Join(binDir, "nwmain-linux")
+	if err := os.WriteFile(nwmain, []byte("#!/bin/sh\n"), 0o755); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+
+	getenv := func(k string) string {
+		switch k {
+		case "HOME":
+			return home
+		case "DISPLAY":
+			return ":0" // pretend a display exists so no xvfb wrap is needed
+		}
+		return ""
+	}
+
+	// Stub the engine: writes a binary compiled model into modelcompiler/.
+	orig := runner
+	defer func() { runner = orig }()
+	runner = func(dir string, env []string, name string, args ...string) ([]byte, error) {
+		// args: compilemodel <stem>
+		stem := args[len(args)-1]
+		compiled := filepath.Join(mc, stem+".mdl")
+		return nil, os.WriteFile(compiled, []byte("\x00\x00compiled"), 0o644)
+	}
+
+	// Source tree with one ASCII model whose names already match its stem.
+	srcDir := t.TempDir()
+	src := filepath.Join(srcDir, "foo.mdl")
+	body := "newmodel foo\nbeginmodelgeom foo\n  node dummy foo\n    parent null\n  endnode\nendmodelgeom foo\ndonemodel foo\n"
+	if err := os.WriteFile(src, []byte(body), 0o644); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+
+	var stdout, stderr bytes.Buffer
+	code := runCompile([]string{"--nwn", nwmain, srcDir}, &stdout, &stderr, getenv)
+	if code != exitOK {
+		t.Fatalf("compile exit = %d\n%s", code, stderr.String())
+	}
+	// The source is now binary (the compiled artifact moved back over it).
+	data, err := os.ReadFile(src)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("compiled model missing: %v", err)
+	}
+	if string(data) != "\x00\x00compiled" {
+		t.Fatalf("source not replaced by compiled binary: %q", data)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCompileAbortsOnNameMismatch(t *testing.T) {
+	home := t.TempDir()
+	if err := os.MkdirAll(filepath.Join(home, ".local", "share", "Neverwinter Nights", "development"), 0o755); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	binDir := t.TempDir()
+	nwmain := filepath.Join(binDir, "nwmain-linux")
+	if err := os.WriteFile(nwmain, []byte("#!/bin/sh\n"), 0o755); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	getenv := func(k string) string {
+		if k == "HOME" {
+			return home
+		}
+		if k == "DISPLAY" {
+			return ":0"
+		}
+		return ""
+	}
+	orig := runner
+	defer func() { runner = orig }()
+	engineCalled := false
+	runner = func(string, []string, string, ...string) ([]byte, error) {
+		engineCalled = true
+		return nil, nil
+	}
+
+	srcDir := t.TempDir()
+	// Internal name "wrong" != stem "foo": must abort before touching the engine.
+	if err := os.WriteFile(filepath.Join(srcDir, "foo.mdl"),
+		[]byte("newmodel wrong\ndonemodel wrong\n"), 0o644); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	var stdout, stderr bytes.Buffer
+	if code := runCompile([]string{"--nwn", nwmain, srcDir}, &stdout, &stderr, getenv); code != exitFail {
+		t.Fatalf("mismatch exit = %d, want %d", code, exitFail)
+	}
+	if engineCalled {
+		t.Fatal("engine should not run for a name-mismatched model")
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/convert.go b/internal/assets/convert.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3eae677
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/convert.go
@@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"flag"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+)
+
+var textureExts = map[string]bool{".dds": true, ".png": true, ".tga": true}
+
+// runConvert converts textures in place, flipping vertically exactly once per
+// conversion. --to defaults to dds. Files already in the target format are
+// skipped.
+func runConvert(args []string, stdout, stderr io.Writer) int {
+	fs := flag.NewFlagSet("convert", flag.ContinueOnError)
+	fs.SetOutput(stderr)
+	to := fs.String("to", "dds", "target format: dds|png|tga")
+	backend := fs.String("backend", "magick", "ImageMagick-compatible binary")
+	nonRecursive := fs.Bool("non-recursive", false, "do not descend into subdirectories")
+	if err := fs.Parse(args); err != nil {
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+	target := strings.ToLower(*to)
+	if target != "dds" && target != "png" && target != "tga" {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets convert: --to must be dds, png, or tga")
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+	dirs := fs.Args()
+	if len(dirs) == 0 {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets convert: usage: convert [--to dds|png|tga] <dir>...")
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	magick := look(*backend)
+	if magick == "" {
+		fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets convert: backend %q not found — install ImageMagick (magick)\n", *backend)
+		return exitTool
+	}
+
+	files, err := walk(dirs, textureExts, !*nonRecursive)
+	if err != nil {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets convert:", err)
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	targetExt := "." + target
+	failed := false
+	for _, src := range files {
+		srcExt := strings.ToLower(filepath.Ext(src))
+		if srcExt == targetExt {
+			continue // already in the target format
+		}
+		dst := strings.TrimSuffix(src, filepath.Ext(src)) + targetExt
+		var convErr error
+		if target == "dds" {
+			convErr = pngToDDS(magick, src, dst)
+		} else {
+			convErr = ddsToPNG(magick, src, dst) // works for any decodable source
+		}
+		if convErr != nil {
+			fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets convert: %s: %v\n", src, convErr)
+			failed = true
+			continue
+		}
+		if dst != src {
+			if err := os.Remove(src); err != nil {
+				fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets convert: %s: %v\n", src, err)
+				failed = true
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if failed {
+		return exitFail
+	}
+	return exitOK
+}
+
+// ddsToPNG decodes src to dst (PNG/TGA by dst's extension), flipping vertically
+// once. The single flip is the defining NWN behavior.
+func ddsToPNG(magickBin, src, dst string) error {
+	if out, err := runner("", nil, magickBin, src, "-flip", dst); err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("magick: %v: %s", err, strings.TrimSpace(string(out)))
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+// pngToDDS encodes src to a DDS at dst, flipping vertically once and choosing
+// DXT1 for opaque images, DXT5 for images with alpha.
+func pngToDDS(magickBin, src, dst string) error {
+	compression := "dxt1"
+	if hasAlpha(magickBin, src) {
+		compression = "dxt5"
+	}
+	// ponytail: mipmaps rely on magick's default full chain (NWN wants a
+	// pyramid, which magick writes by default). Add `-define dds:mipmaps=N`
+	// here if a specific count is ever required.
+	out, err := runner("", nil, magickBin, src, "-flip",
+		"-define", "dds:compression="+compression, dst)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("magick: %v: %s", err, strings.TrimSpace(string(out)))
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+// hasAlpha reports whether src has any non-opaque pixel, via `magick identify`.
+// On any probe error it assumes alpha (DXT5), the safe/lossless-alpha default.
+func hasAlpha(magickBin, src string) bool {
+	out, err := runner("", nil, magickBin, "identify", "-format", "%[opaque]", src)
+	if err != nil {
+		return true
+	}
+	return !strings.EqualFold(strings.TrimSpace(string(out)), "true")
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/convert_test.go b/internal/assets/convert_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64d5c23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/convert_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"image"
+	"image/color"
+	"image/png"
+	"os"
+	"os/exec"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+// writeTestPNG writes a 16x16 image: top half red, bottom half blue. The size
+// and the half-way split keep every 4x4 DXT block a single flat color, so the
+// DXT1 round trip stays lossless and only the flip is under test. (A 4x4 image
+// is one mixed DXT block that magick's encoder collapses to a single color.)
+func writeTestPNG(t *testing.T, path string) {
+	t.Helper()
+	const n = 16
+	img := image.NewRGBA(image.Rect(0, 0, n, n))
+	for y := 0; y < n; y++ {
+		c := color.RGBA{255, 0, 0, 255} // red
+		if y >= n/2 {
+			c = color.RGBA{0, 0, 255, 255} // blue
+		}
+		for x := 0; x < n; x++ {
+			img.Set(x, y, c)
+		}
+	}
+	f, err := os.Create(path)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	defer f.Close()
+	if err := png.Encode(f, img); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+}
+
+func topRowIsBlue(t *testing.T, pngPath string) bool {
+	t.Helper()
+	f, err := os.Open(pngPath)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	defer f.Close()
+	img, err := png.Decode(f)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	r, _, b, _ := img.At(0, 0).RGBA()
+	return b > r // blue dominates the top-left after a flip
+}
+
+func TestConvertFlipsOnceAndRoundTrips(t *testing.T) {
+	magick := look("magick")
+	if magick == "" {
+		t.Skip("magick not on PATH")
+	}
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	src := filepath.Join(dir, "tex.png")
+	writeTestPNG(t, src)
+
+	// Convert PNG -> DDS (in place: tex.png becomes tex.dds, original removed).
+	var out, errw bytes.Buffer
+	if code := runConvert([]string{"--to", "dds", dir}, &out, &errw); code != exitOK {
+		t.Fatalf("to-dds exit = %d\n%s", code, errw.String())
+	}
+	dds := filepath.Join(dir, "tex.dds")
+	if _, err := os.Stat(dds); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("dds not produced: %v", err)
+	}
+	if _, err := os.Stat(src); !os.IsNotExist(err) {
+		t.Fatal("source png was not replaced")
+	}
+
+	// Decode the DDS RAW (no extra flip) and confirm a single flip happened:
+	// the source top row was red, so the DDS top row must now be blue.
+	raw := filepath.Join(dir, "raw.png")
+	if err := exec.Command(magick, dds, raw).Run(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("raw decode: %v", err)
+	}
+	if !topRowIsBlue(t, raw) {
+		t.Fatal("expected the DDS to be vertically flipped vs the source")
+	}
+
+	// Convert DDS -> PNG (another flip). Result should match the original.
+	out.Reset()
+	errw.Reset()
+	if code := runConvert([]string{"--to", "png", dir}, &out, &errw); code != exitOK {
+		t.Fatalf("to-png exit = %d\n%s", code, errw.String())
+	}
+	restored := filepath.Join(dir, "tex.png")
+	if topRowIsBlue(t, restored) {
+		t.Fatal("round trip did not restore the original orientation")
+	}
+}
+
+func TestConvertMissingBackendFailsClosed(t *testing.T) {
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	writeTestPNG(t, filepath.Join(dir, "tex.png"))
+	var out, errw bytes.Buffer
+	code := runConvert([]string{"--backend", "/nonexistent/magick", dir}, &out, &errw)
+	if code != exitTool {
+		t.Fatalf("missing backend exit = %d, want %d", code, exitTool)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/dupes.go b/internal/assets/dupes.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e279a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/dupes.go
@@ -0,0 +1,151 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"flag"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"sort"
+	"strings"
+)
+
+// allFiles returns every regular file under root (recursive).
+func allFiles(root string) ([]string, error) {
+	var out []string
+	err := filepath.WalkDir(root, func(p string, d os.DirEntry, err error) error {
+		if err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+		if !d.IsDir() {
+			out = append(out, p)
+		}
+		return nil
+	})
+	sort.Strings(out)
+	return out, err
+}
+
+// runCheckDupes reports files whose lower-cased basename collides across the
+// given dirs. Read-only. Exit exitFail if any collision is found.
+func runCheckDupes(args []string, stdout, stderr io.Writer) int {
+	fs := flag.NewFlagSet("check-dupes", flag.ContinueOnError)
+	fs.SetOutput(stderr)
+	if err := fs.Parse(args); err != nil {
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+	dirs := fs.Args()
+	if len(dirs) == 0 {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets check-dupes: usage: check-dupes <dir>...")
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	first := map[string]string{}
+	fail := false
+	for _, dir := range dirs {
+		if fi, err := os.Stat(dir); err != nil || !fi.IsDir() {
+			fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets check-dupes: no such dir: %s\n", dir)
+			return exitUsage
+		}
+		files, err := allFiles(dir)
+		if err != nil {
+			fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets check-dupes:", err)
+			return exitTool
+		}
+		for _, f := range files {
+			key := strings.ToLower(filepath.Base(f))
+			if prev, ok := first[key]; ok {
+				fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "runtime-name collision: %s collides with %s\n", f, prev)
+				fail = true
+			} else {
+				first[key] = f
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	if fail {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "check-dupes: found runtime-name collision(s)")
+		return exitFail
+	}
+	fmt.Fprintln(stdout, "check-dupes: OK")
+	return exitOK
+}
+
+// runCleanDupes deletes files from <clean> whose lower-cased basename collides
+// with any file in <primary>. Mutates only <clean>. Refuses to run if the two
+// trees overlap.
+func runCleanDupes(args []string, stdout, stderr io.Writer) int {
+	fs := flag.NewFlagSet("clean-dupes", flag.ContinueOnError)
+	fs.SetOutput(stderr)
+	dryRun := fs.Bool("dry-run", false, "report deletions without removing")
+	if err := fs.Parse(args); err != nil {
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+	pos := fs.Args()
+	if len(pos) != 2 {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets clean-dupes: usage: clean-dupes [--dry-run] <primary> <clean>")
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+	primary, clean := pos[0], pos[1]
+	for _, d := range []string{primary, clean} {
+		if fi, err := os.Stat(d); err != nil || !fi.IsDir() {
+			fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets clean-dupes: no such dir: %s\n", d)
+			return exitUsage
+		}
+	}
+	primaryReal, err1 := filepath.EvalSymlinks(primary)
+	cleanReal, err2 := filepath.EvalSymlinks(clean)
+	if err1 != nil || err2 != nil {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets clean-dupes: cannot resolve dirs")
+		return exitTool
+	}
+	if overlaps(primaryReal, cleanReal) {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets clean-dupes: primary and clean dirs must not overlap")
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	primaryFiles, err := allFiles(primary)
+	if err != nil {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets clean-dupes:", err)
+		return exitTool
+	}
+	names := map[string]bool{}
+	for _, f := range primaryFiles {
+		names[strings.ToLower(filepath.Base(f))] = true
+	}
+
+	cleanFiles, err := allFiles(clean)
+	if err != nil {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets clean-dupes:", err)
+		return exitTool
+	}
+	removed := 0
+	for _, f := range cleanFiles {
+		if !names[strings.ToLower(filepath.Base(f))] {
+			continue
+		}
+		if *dryRun {
+			fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "would delete clean-tree collision: %s\n", f)
+		} else {
+			if err := os.Remove(f); err != nil {
+				fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets clean-dupes:", err)
+				return exitTool
+			}
+			fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "deleted clean-tree collision: %s\n", f)
+		}
+		removed++
+	}
+	verb := "removed"
+	if *dryRun {
+		verb = "would remove"
+	}
+	fmt.Fprintf(stdout, "clean-dupes: %s %d file(s)\n", verb, removed)
+	return exitOK
+}
+
+// overlaps reports whether either directory contains the other (or they are
+// equal), using cleaned absolute-ish paths with a trailing separator.
+func overlaps(a, b string) bool {
+	as := a + string(filepath.Separator)
+	bs := b + string(filepath.Separator)
+	return strings.HasPrefix(as, bs) || strings.HasPrefix(bs, as)
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/dupes_test.go b/internal/assets/dupes_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..832d836
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/dupes_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+func touch(t *testing.T, path string) {
+	t.Helper()
+	if err := os.MkdirAll(filepath.Dir(path), 0o755); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := os.WriteFile(path, []byte("x"), 0o644); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCheckDupes(t *testing.T) {
+	root := t.TempDir()
+	touch(t, filepath.Join(root, "tex", "Foo.tga"))
+	touch(t, filepath.Join(root, "plc", "foo.tga")) // basename collision (case-insensitive)
+
+	var out, errw bytes.Buffer
+	if code := runCheckDupes([]string{root}, &out, &errw); code != exitFail {
+		t.Fatalf("collision exit = %d, want %d\n%s", code, exitFail, errw.String())
+	}
+
+	clean := t.TempDir()
+	touch(t, filepath.Join(clean, "a.tga"))
+	touch(t, filepath.Join(clean, "sub", "b.tga"))
+	out.Reset()
+	errw.Reset()
+	if code := runCheckDupes([]string{clean}, &out, &errw); code != exitOK {
+		t.Fatalf("no-collision exit = %d, want %d\n%s", code, exitOK, errw.String())
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCleanDupes(t *testing.T) {
+	primary := t.TempDir()
+	clean := t.TempDir()
+	touch(t, filepath.Join(primary, "keep.tga"))
+	collide := filepath.Join(clean, "sub", "Keep.tga")
+	survive := filepath.Join(clean, "unique.tga")
+	touch(t, collide)
+	touch(t, survive)
+
+	// dry-run removes nothing.
+	var out, errw bytes.Buffer
+	if code := runCleanDupes([]string{"--dry-run", primary, clean}, &out, &errw); code != exitOK {
+		t.Fatalf("dry-run exit = %d\n%s", code, errw.String())
+	}
+	if _, err := os.Stat(collide); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal("dry-run deleted a file")
+	}
+
+	// real run deletes the collision, keeps the unique file.
+	out.Reset()
+	errw.Reset()
+	if code := runCleanDupes([]string{primary, clean}, &out, &errw); code != exitOK {
+		t.Fatalf("clean exit = %d\n%s", code, errw.String())
+	}
+	if _, err := os.Stat(collide); !os.IsNotExist(err) {
+		t.Fatal("collision file was not deleted")
+	}
+	if _, err := os.Stat(survive); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal("unique file was wrongly deleted")
+	}
+}
+
+func TestCleanDupesRejectsOverlap(t *testing.T) {
+	root := t.TempDir()
+	sub := filepath.Join(root, "child")
+	touch(t, filepath.Join(sub, "x.tga"))
+	var out, errw bytes.Buffer
+	if code := runCleanDupes([]string{root, sub}, &out, &errw); code != exitUsage {
+		t.Fatalf("overlap exit = %d, want %d", code, exitUsage)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/fixmdl.go b/internal/assets/fixmdl.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..113ba43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/fixmdl.go
@@ -0,0 +1,103 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"flag"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+
+	"git.westgate.pw/ShadowsOverWestgate/sow-tools/internal/assets/mdl"
+)
+
+// runFixMDL lowercases .mdl filenames and rewrites ASCII model identity to
+// match each file's stem. Binary models are skipped (the engine owns those).
+func runFixMDL(args []string, stdout, stderr io.Writer) int {
+	fs := flag.NewFlagSet("fix-mdl", flag.ContinueOnError)
+	fs.SetOutput(stderr)
+	dryRun := fs.Bool("dry-run", false, "report changes without touching disk")
+	nonRecursive := fs.Bool("non-recursive", false, "do not descend into subdirectories")
+	if err := fs.Parse(args); err != nil {
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+	paths := fs.Args()
+	if len(paths) == 0 {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets fix-mdl: usage: fix-mdl [--dry-run] <path>...")
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	files, err := walk(paths, mdlExt, !*nonRecursive)
+	if err != nil {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets fix-mdl:", err)
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	changed := 0
+	failed := false
+	for _, f := range files {
+		// 1. Lowercase the basename if needed.
+		//
+		// ponytail: 35k files are each read once here (CheckNames + the rewrite
+		// on candidates). The shell reference batched an awk pass to avoid
+		// per-file subprocess spawns; in Go a plain read is cheap, so the batch
+		// is not worth porting. If profiling ever shows this hot, parallelize
+		// the loop.
+		lower := f
+		if base := filepath.Base(f); base != strings.ToLower(base) {
+			lower = filepath.Join(filepath.Dir(f), strings.ToLower(base))
+			if _, err := os.Stat(lower); err == nil {
+				fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets fix-mdl: lowercase collision: %s -> %s\n", f, lower)
+				failed = true
+				continue
+			}
+			if *dryRun {
+				fmt.Fprintf(stdout, "would lowercase: %s -> %s\n", f, lower)
+			} else {
+				if err := os.Rename(f, lower); err != nil {
+					fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets fix-mdl: failed to lowercase %s: %v\n", f, err)
+					failed = true
+					continue
+				}
+				fmt.Fprintf(stdout, "lowercased: %s -> %s\n", f, lower)
+			}
+			changed++
+		}
+
+		// 2. Rewrite model identity if the (lowercased) file has a mismatch.
+		//    In dry-run the on-disk file is still the original path.
+		readPath := lower
+		if *dryRun && lower != f {
+			readPath = f
+		}
+		data, err := os.ReadFile(readPath)
+		if err != nil {
+			fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets fix-mdl:", err)
+			failed = true
+			continue
+		}
+		out, wasChanged := mdl.FixNames(data, mdl.ExpectedName(lower))
+		if !wasChanged {
+			continue
+		}
+		if *dryRun {
+			fmt.Fprintf(stdout, "would fix: %s\n", lower)
+		} else {
+			if err := os.WriteFile(lower, out, 0o644); err != nil {
+				fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets fix-mdl:", err)
+				failed = true
+				continue
+			}
+			fmt.Fprintf(stdout, "fixed: %s\n", lower)
+		}
+		changed++
+	}
+
+	if changed == 0 {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stdout, "no broken mdl model names found")
+	}
+	if failed {
+		return exitFail
+	}
+	return exitOK
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/fixmdl_test.go b/internal/assets/fixmdl_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b8c0636
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/fixmdl_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+
+	"git.westgate.pw/ShadowsOverWestgate/sow-tools/internal/assets/mdl"
+)
+
+func TestFixMDL(t *testing.T) {
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	// Uppercase name + internal mismatch.
+	upper := filepath.Join(dir, "Foo.MDL")
+	body := "newmodel wrong\nbeginmodelgeom wrong\nendmodelgeom wrong\ndonemodel wrong\n"
+	if err := os.WriteFile(upper, []byte(body), 0o644); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+
+	// dry-run: nothing changes on disk.
+	var out, errw bytes.Buffer
+	if code := runFixMDL([]string{"--dry-run", dir}, &out, &errw); code != exitOK {
+		t.Fatalf("dry-run exit = %d\n%s", code, errw.String())
+	}
+	if _, err := os.Stat(upper); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal("dry-run renamed a file")
+	}
+
+	// real run: file is lowercased and its identity rewritten to match.
+	out.Reset()
+	errw.Reset()
+	if code := runFixMDL([]string{dir}, &out, &errw); code != exitOK {
+		t.Fatalf("fix exit = %d\n%s", code, errw.String())
+	}
+	lowered := filepath.Join(dir, "foo.mdl")
+	if _, err := os.Stat(lowered); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("file was not lowercased: %v", err)
+	}
+	mismatches, err := mdl.CheckNames(lowered)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if len(mismatches) != 0 {
+		data, _ := os.ReadFile(lowered)
+		t.Fatalf("model still has mismatches after fix: %+v\n%s", mismatches, data)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/helpers.go b/internal/assets/helpers.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..23ad465
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/helpers.go
@@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
+// Package assets is the crucible `assets` builder: NWN:EE model/texture tools
+// that operate in place on a target directory. Mirrors internal/depot's
+// Run(args, stdout, stderr, getenv) shape and bypasses the legacy internal/app
+// surface entirely.
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"os"
+	"os/exec"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"sort"
+	"strings"
+)
+
+// runner is the single external-command indirection so tests can observe and
+// stub every engine / ImageMagick / upscaler invocation. dir is the working
+// directory ("" = inherit); env replaces the child environment when non-nil.
+var runner = func(dir string, env []string, name string, args ...string) ([]byte, error) {
+	cmd := exec.Command(name, args...)
+	cmd.Dir = dir
+	if env != nil {
+		cmd.Env = env
+	}
+	return cmd.CombinedOutput()
+}
+
+// walk collects files under each root whose lower-cased extension is in exts. A
+// root that is itself a matching file is included. recursive controls descent
+// into subdirectories. Results are sorted and deduplicated.
+func walk(roots []string, exts map[string]bool, recursive bool) ([]string, error) {
+	seen := map[string]bool{}
+	var out []string
+	add := func(p string) {
+		if exts[strings.ToLower(filepath.Ext(p))] && !seen[p] {
+			seen[p] = true
+			out = append(out, p)
+		}
+	}
+	for _, root := range roots {
+		fi, err := os.Stat(root)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		if !fi.IsDir() {
+			add(root)
+			continue
+		}
+		err = filepath.WalkDir(root, func(p string, d os.DirEntry, err error) error {
+			if err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+			if d.IsDir() {
+				if !recursive && p != root {
+					return filepath.SkipDir
+				}
+				return nil
+			}
+			add(p)
+			return nil
+		})
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+	}
+	sort.Strings(out)
+	return out, nil
+}
+
+// look returns the first bare name found on PATH, or the first candidate that
+// is an existing path. Returns "" if none resolve.
+func look(candidates ...string) string {
+	for _, c := range candidates {
+		if strings.ContainsRune(c, filepath.Separator) {
+			if fi, err := os.Stat(c); err == nil && !fi.IsDir() {
+				return c
+			}
+			continue
+		}
+		if p, err := exec.LookPath(c); err == nil {
+			return p
+		}
+	}
+	return ""
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/helpers_test.go b/internal/assets/helpers_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6dc8809
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/helpers_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+func TestWalk(t *testing.T) {
+	root := t.TempDir()
+	must := func(rel string) {
+		p := filepath.Join(root, rel)
+		if err := os.MkdirAll(filepath.Dir(p), 0o755); err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+		if err := os.WriteFile(p, []byte("x"), 0o644); err != nil {
+			t.Fatal(err)
+		}
+	}
+	must("a.MDL")
+	must("sub/b.mdl")
+	must("sub/c.txt")
+
+	exts := map[string]bool{".mdl": true}
+	got, err := walk([]string{root}, exts, true)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if len(got) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("recursive walk = %v, want 2 mdl files", got)
+	}
+
+	got, _ = walk([]string{root}, exts, false)
+	if len(got) != 1 || filepath.Base(got[0]) != "a.MDL" {
+		t.Fatalf("non-recursive walk = %v, want only a.MDL", got)
+	}
+
+	// A file argument that matches is included directly.
+	got, _ = walk([]string{filepath.Join(root, "sub", "b.mdl")}, exts, true)
+	if len(got) != 1 {
+		t.Fatalf("file arg walk = %v, want the file itself", got)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestLook(t *testing.T) {
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	stub := filepath.Join(dir, "mytool")
+	if err := os.WriteFile(stub, []byte("#!/bin/sh\n"), 0o755); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	t.Setenv("PATH", dir)
+
+	if got := look("nope-not-here", "mytool"); got == "" {
+		t.Fatal("look should find mytool on PATH")
+	}
+	// Explicit existing path candidate.
+	if got := look(stub); got != stub {
+		t.Fatalf("look(%q) = %q, want the path itself", stub, got)
+	}
+	if got := look("definitely-absent-binary-xyz"); got != "" {
+		t.Fatalf("look = %q, want empty", got)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/run.go b/internal/assets/run.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d21fdaf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/run.go
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+)
+
+const (
+	exitOK    = 0
+	exitFail  = 1  // problems found / per-file failures
+	exitUsage = 64 // bad invocation / unknown subcommand / bad flags
+	exitTool  = 70 // missing external tool / internal error
+)
+
+// Run executes an assets subcommand. args[0] is the subcommand; returns the
+// process exit code.
+func Run(args []string, stdout, stderr io.Writer, getenv func(string) string) int {
+	if len(args) == 0 {
+		printUsage(stderr)
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+	rest := args[1:]
+	switch args[0] {
+	case "check-dupes":
+		return runCheckDupes(rest, stdout, stderr)
+	case "clean-dupes":
+		return runCleanDupes(rest, stdout, stderr)
+	case "check-mdl":
+		return runCheckMDL(rest, stdout, stderr)
+	case "fix-mdl":
+		return runFixMDL(rest, stdout, stderr)
+	case "convert":
+		return runConvert(rest, stdout, stderr)
+	case "upscale":
+		return runUpscale(rest, stdout, stderr)
+	case "compile":
+		return runCompile(rest, stdout, stderr, getenv)
+	default:
+		fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets: unknown subcommand %q\n\n", args[0])
+		printUsage(stderr)
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+}
+
+func printUsage(w io.Writer) {
+	fmt.Fprint(w, `usage:
+  assets compile      [--nwn INSTALL] [--non-recursive] <dir>...
+  assets convert      [--to dds|png|tga] [--backend PATH] [--non-recursive] <dir>...
+  assets upscale      [--scale N] [--backend PATH] [--non-recursive] <dir>...
+  assets check-mdl    <path>...
+  assets fix-mdl      [--dry-run] <path>...
+  assets check-dupes  <dir>...
+  assets clean-dupes  [--dry-run] <primary> <clean>
+`)
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/run_test.go b/internal/assets/run_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05b16fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/run_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"strings"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+func env(string) string { return "" }
+
+func TestRunNoArgsIsUsage(t *testing.T) {
+	var out, errw bytes.Buffer
+	if code := Run(nil, &out, &errw, env); code != exitUsage {
+		t.Fatalf("no args exit = %d, want %d", code, exitUsage)
+	}
+	if !strings.Contains(errw.String(), "usage") {
+		t.Fatalf("no args should print usage, got: %q", errw.String())
+	}
+}
+
+func TestRunUnknownSubcommandIsUsage(t *testing.T) {
+	var out, errw bytes.Buffer
+	if code := Run([]string{"frobnicate"}, &out, &errw, env); code != exitUsage {
+		t.Fatalf("unknown subcommand exit = %d, want %d", code, exitUsage)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/upscale.go b/internal/assets/upscale.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51b5a50
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/upscale.go
@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"flag"
+	"fmt"
+	"io"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strconv"
+	"strings"
+)
+
+var upscaleBackends = []string{"upscayl-bin", "upscayl", "realesrgan-ncnn-vulkan", "waifu2x-ncnn-vulkan"}
+
+// runUpscale upscales textures in place through an installed ncnn-vulkan
+// backend. DDS inputs are bridged through PNG so the NWN flip stays correct.
+func runUpscale(args []string, stdout, stderr io.Writer) int {
+	fs := flag.NewFlagSet("upscale", flag.ContinueOnError)
+	fs.SetOutput(stderr)
+	scale := fs.Int("scale", 4, "upscale factor")
+	backend := fs.String("backend", "", "override the upscaler binary")
+	nonRecursive := fs.Bool("non-recursive", false, "do not descend into subdirectories")
+	if err := fs.Parse(args); err != nil {
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+	dirs := fs.Args()
+	if len(dirs) == 0 {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets upscale: usage: upscale [--scale N] <dir>...")
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	candidates := upscaleBackends
+	if *backend != "" {
+		candidates = []string{*backend}
+	}
+	tool := look(candidates...)
+	if tool == "" {
+		fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets upscale: no upscaler found — install one of: %s\n", strings.Join(upscaleBackends, ", "))
+		return exitTool
+	}
+
+	files, err := walk(dirs, textureExts, !*nonRecursive)
+	if err != nil {
+		fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets upscale:", err)
+		return exitUsage
+	}
+
+	// magick is only needed if a .dds input is present; resolve lazily.
+	magick := ""
+	failed := false
+	for _, src := range files {
+		var upErr error
+		if strings.EqualFold(filepath.Ext(src), ".dds") {
+			if magick == "" {
+				if magick = look("magick"); magick == "" {
+					fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "assets upscale: .dds input needs ImageMagick (magick) for the png bridge")
+					return exitTool
+				}
+			}
+			upErr = upscaleDDS(tool, magick, src, *scale)
+		} else {
+			upErr = upscaleImage(tool, src, src, *scale)
+		}
+		if upErr != nil {
+			fmt.Fprintf(stderr, "assets upscale: %s: %v\n", src, upErr)
+			failed = true
+		}
+	}
+	if failed {
+		return exitFail
+	}
+	return exitOK
+}
+
+// upscaleImage runs the ncnn-vulkan backend to upscale src into dst (may be the
+// same path).
+func upscaleImage(tool, src, dst string, scale int) error {
+	tmp := dst + ".upscaled.png"
+	out, err := runner("", nil, tool, "-i", src, "-o", tmp, "-s", strconv.Itoa(scale))
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("%s: %v: %s", filepath.Base(tool), err, strings.TrimSpace(string(out)))
+	}
+	return os.Rename(tmp, dst)
+}
+
+// upscaleDDS bridges a DDS through PNG: dds->png (flip), upscale, png->dds
+// (flip back), yielding a correctly-flipped upscaled DDS.
+func upscaleDDS(tool, magick, src string, scale int) error {
+	tmpPNG := src + ".bridge.png"
+	if err := ddsToPNG(magick, src, tmpPNG); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	defer os.Remove(tmpPNG)
+	if err := upscaleImage(tool, tmpPNG, tmpPNG, scale); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	return pngToDDS(magick, tmpPNG, src)
+}
diff --git a/internal/assets/upscale_test.go b/internal/assets/upscale_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6f172e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/assets/upscale_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+package assets
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+func TestUpscalePNGUsesBackend(t *testing.T) {
+	// A fake backend binary on PATH so look() resolves it.
+	binDir := t.TempDir()
+	fake := filepath.Join(binDir, "upscayl-bin")
+	if err := os.WriteFile(fake, []byte("#!/bin/sh\n"), 0o755); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	t.Setenv("PATH", binDir)
+
+	// Stub runner: emulate `-i in -o out -s scale` by copying in->out.
+	orig := runner
+	defer func() { runner = orig }()
+	var gotScale string
+	runner = func(dir string, env []string, name string, args ...string) ([]byte, error) {
+		var in, out string
+		for i := 0; i < len(args)-1; i++ {
+			switch args[i] {
+			case "-i":
+				in = args[i+1]
+			case "-o":
+				out = args[i+1]
+			case "-s":
+				gotScale = args[i+1]
+			}
+		}
+		data, err := os.ReadFile(in)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, err
+		}
+		return nil, os.WriteFile(out, data, 0o644)
+	}
+
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	src := filepath.Join(dir, "tex.png")
+	if err := os.WriteFile(src, []byte("pngdata"), 0o644); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	var stdout, stderr bytes.Buffer
+	if code := runUpscale([]string{"--scale", "2", dir}, &stdout, &stderr); code != exitOK {
+		t.Fatalf("upscale exit = %d\n%s", code, stderr.String())
+	}
+	if gotScale != "2" {
+		t.Fatalf("scale passed to backend = %q, want 2", gotScale)
+	}
+	if data, _ := os.ReadFile(src); string(data) != "pngdata" {
+		t.Fatalf("upscaled file content = %q, want the backend output", data)
+	}
+}
+
+func TestUpscaleNoBackendFailsClosed(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Setenv("PATH", t.TempDir()) // empty PATH: no backend resolvable
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	if err := os.WriteFile(filepath.Join(dir, "tex.png"), []byte("x"), 0o644); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	var stdout, stderr bytes.Buffer
+	if code := runUpscale([]string{dir}, &stdout, &stderr); code != exitTool {
+		t.Fatalf("no-backend exit = %d, want %d", code, exitTool)
+	}
+}